Browse Primary Sources

Napoleon Is Unable to Digest Leipzig

After the defeat in Russia, with renewed allied forces arrayed against him, Napoleon prepared once again to defend France. Yet in 1813 at Leipzig, the Emperor was defeated. This allowed the allies to press a successful campaign, leading to the surrender in 1814. Napoleon would return the next year, only to be defeated at Waterloo and exiled far from Europe.

I Am Called Cerberus but Am Also a Chameleon: Napoleon Being Sucked into Hell

Where once cartoonists focused on classical images of death to signal the doom of monarchs and aristocrats, they now used these same symbols to drag Napoleon into the netherworld.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

The Emperor and the Imperial Guard on the Island of Elba

Napoleon spent ten months on this island in the Mediterranean. He was able to follow events in France without much difficulty. This initial exile was part of a relatively lenient settlement granted by the allies in 1814 after Napoleon’s initial defeat. France’s opponents did not want to humble the nation so much that it would seek revenge.

Congress of Vienna

The treaty in the spring of 1814 had accepted Napoleon’s surrender, but a general meeting of European countries convened to settle broader issues of a postrevolutionary era. While the allies were working on a number of concerns—and as a byproduct, raising French anxieties—Napoleon returned to capitalize on this negative reaction.

Return from the Island of Elba

Troops sent by Louis XVIII to stop Napoleon’s advance toward Paris either deserted or joined Napoleon.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

The Day after Waterloo

Thousands died or were wounded in the fighting that began 15 June and ended at a series of farmhouses at Waterloo on 18 June 1815.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

The Death of Napoleon on St. Helena

Even in death Napoleon was controversial. Many questions surrounded his death: Was he poisoned? His hair had high levels of arsenic in it. Did he have stomach cancer? He certainly had stomach ulcers and suffered from severe intestinal pain and frequent vomiting.

Festival of National Unity, 14 July 1939

In this celebration of national unity, the focus on 1789 is quite apparent. The Phrygian cap at the top of the decorations recalled the Revolution, as did the date for this celebration. Of course, both symbol and date had been used and appropriated repeatedly since 1789, but this is a clear reference to the 1789 event.

Lafayette Receives the City’s 'Sword for the Defense of Liberty'

During the Revolution the most visible connection between America and France was Lafayette, who had volunteered for service in the American Revolution and had been mentored by Washington and Jefferson. This special status vaulted him to prominence in 1789 as he became a delegate in the Estates–General, head of the National Guard, and a general in the military.

The French Nation Defeats Despotism

Here Lafayette’s role is praised. A warlike liberty stands with him over a defeated despotism at his feet. Revolutionaries often represented despotism as a multi-headed monster.

Solemn Inauguration of the Statue of Liberty

Toned down and transformed from her revolutionary past, the Statue stands for liberty, even without a pike and a Phrygian cap. Furthermore, the Statue, a gift from France and a marvel of engineering, still connotes revolution because of the identification between France and revolutionary notions.

The Marseillaise

A similar emphasis on patriotic unity can be seen in Jean Renoir’s film, La Marseillaise (1938). The movie tells the story of France’s national anthem, composed by Rouget de Lisle as a way to rally the troops. The song, written for soldiers from Marseillaise, soon inspired the entire nation.

Burning the Guardhouse on the Pont Neuf

This retrospective shows that early in the French Revolution targets were often economic. This should be no surprise as the populace had a long tradition of taking the law into its own hands to rectify what they saw as injustices. Here a guardhouse is destroyed during a riot focused on a network of facilities regulating the market.

Departments of 1798

Map of 1798 France depicting the Departments and major urban centers.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

Map of Europe in 1812

A map of Europe in 1812 depicting French territory, French dependencies, and territories allied to Napoleonic France.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

Map of Europe in 1815

A map of Europe in 1815 depicting Napoleonic France, Prussia, the Austrian Empire, and the boundary of the Germanic Confederation.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

Napoleon in Italy 1796-97

Map depicting Napoleon's campaigns in Italy, 1796-97.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

Napoleon’s Egyptian Campaign

Map depicting Napoleon's Egyptian campaigns.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

The Moscow Campaign 1812

Map depicting Napoleon's 1812 Russia campaign.

This source is a part of the The Napoleonic Experience teaching module.

Equality

At the beginning of the French Revolution, the term "equality" meant an end to the legal differences that had characterized the Old Regime. For example, all individuals would be subject to the same regimen of taxation. Over the course of the decade, however, the Revolution radicalized, and equality expanded to encompass an end to many other sorts of differences, particularly economic ones.